Main Ref. | Allen, G.R., 1985 |
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Remarks | Inhabit coastal as well as offshore waters. Found around coral reefs, rocky areas, estuaries, mangrove areas (Also Ref. 128694), and sometimes in lower reaches of rivers (especially the young). Found in freshwater in Florida (Ref. 26938). Often forming large aggregations. Feed mainly at night on small fishes, shrimps, crabs, gastropods, cephalopods and some planktonic items. Carnivore (Ref. 42240, 57616). Easily approached (Ref. 9710). |
Marine - Neritic | Marine - Oceanic | Brackishwater | Freshwater | |
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Marine zones / Brackish and freshwater bodies |
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Substrate | Hard Bottom: rocky; |
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Substrate Ref. | |
Special habitats | Beds: sea grass; Coral Reefs; |
Special habitats Ref. |
Ref. | |
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Associations | schooling; |
Associated with | |
Association remarks | Adults submit to parasite removal by small fishes, e.g. gobies (Gobiosoma oceanops) and porkfish (Anisotremus virginicus). |
Parasitism |
Feeding type | mainly animals (troph. 2.8 and up) |
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Feeding type Ref. | Bardach, J.E., 1959 |
Feeding habit | hunting macrofauna (predator) |
Feeding habit Ref. | Allen, G.R., 1985 |
Estimation method | Original sample | Unfished population | Remark | ||
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Troph | s.e. | Troph | s.e. | ||
From diet composition | 4.23 | 0.31 | 4.19 | 0.71 | Troph of juv./adults from 4 studies. |
From individual food items | 3.88 | 0.79 | Trophic level estimated from a number of food items using a randomized resampling routine. | ||
Ref. | Sierra, L.M., R. Claro and O.A. Popova, 1994 |